From Xerox to AI: The Technological Eras Reshaping Artistic Expression

 

People often dismiss computers as non-creative, arguing they only execute pre-programmed instructions from humans. Yet, modern computers are crafting novel art, literature, and music, often revealing solutions to problems we didn't know existed. Consider Chester Carlson, a physicist turned law student, who, while too poor to buy books, spent hours in libraries hand-copying texts. Frustrated by this laborious process and the limitations of existing duplicating machines, Carlson envisioned a simpler method.

In 1938, in his modest New York City kitchen, Carlson devised an early photocopier using electrostatics and powders—despite the danger and primitive conditions. Lacking funds and wearing threadbare clothes, he struggled to convince over twenty companies, including IBM, of his invention’s potential; they failed to see the necessity for such a device. In 1946, John Dessauer of Haloid Company in Rochester took a chance on Carlson's concept. By 1956, they introduced the groundbreaking 914 Paper Copier, leading to Haloid’s transformation into the Xerox Corporation, which made billions off a device no one had imagined needing.

Decades later, Xerox established the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC), echoing AT&T's Bell Labs. One of their first creations was the laser printer, marking Xerox's entry into the burgeoning computer revolution.

In the early 1960s, computers were bulky, costly machines accessible mainly to institutions like universities, research labs, and large corporations. Initially used for tasks like code-breaking and complex calculations, curiosity soon led to unexpected applications.

At Bell Labs, engineer A. Michael Noll witnessed a serendipitous moment when a programming error transformed a student’s data into what was humorously dubbed "computer art." Inspired, Noll set out to create art deliberately using the IBM 7094, a formidable computer that filled an entire room and operated with Hollerith cards fed into it to perform calculations. This system, though now primitive compared to today’s laptops, was pivotal in programs like Apollo.

During this era, Alan C. Kay, intrigued by computers from his Air Force days, aimed to transform these giant systems. While interviewing at Xerox PARC, he proposed the radical idea of a personal computer—a concept so ahead of its time that his interviewer dismissed it. However, visionaries like Bill Gates and Steve Jobs later realized Kay’s concept, revolutionizing the notion of personal computing.

This story highlights how the innovation in technology often begins not just with its initial developers but with visionary thinkers who see beyond the conventional uses of their times.

In the early 1950s, as electronic devices like televisions and washing machines became household staples, some visionaries saw beyond their practical applications. Artists envisioned these technologies as tools for creating a new form of art appropriate for the emerging electronic age.

Ben F. Laposky, an American amateur mathematician and self-taught electronics enthusiast, was a pioneer in this field. He was fascinated by the wavy patterns displayed on oscilloscopes, instruments used to display electrical wave signals. These patterns reminded him of the works of Duchamp, Malevich, and Mondrian.

Laposky manipulated the waveforms to pulsate and produce captivating, ever-evolving visual patterns by inputting multiple signals into an oscilloscope. He captured these patterns through long-exposure photographs, initially in black and white and later in color, creating symmetrical, mesmerizing designs he named Oscillons or Electronic Abstractions. In 1953, he showcased these images in what became known as the first exhibition of "computer graphics."

This marked the dawn of electronic art, characterized by two significant aspects: the artworks were machine-generated through automated processes rather than manually created by the artist, and the artist's role evolved to selecting the most aesthetically pleasing images from a nearly infinite array of possibilities. Thus began a new era in art.

By the 1970s, computers had become more familiar though they remained large and costly. The landscape of computing dramatically changed at the decade's end with the introduction of the Apple II, a personal computer capable of rendering color graphics. Coinciding with this, the first modems were released, enabling the transmission of digital signals over telephone lines, setting the stage for networked communication.

The 1980s witnessed a surge in technological innovation. A new wave of more affordable and user-friendly personal computers hit the market. This era also saw the emergence of software that allowed artists to venture into digital imaging. In 1982, Adobe Systems launched, introducing pioneering digital-imaging software. This period also marked the advent of the compact disc and the development of larger graphics cards, which facilitated the creation of Adobe Photoshop, significantly easing the process of digital art creation. In 1986, Steve Jobs acquired the Lucasfilm Computer Graphics Division, laying the groundwork for what would become Pixar Animation Studios.

The pace of technological development accelerated further in the 1990s. The introduction of hypertext markup language (HTML) by Tim Berners-Lee, followed by the creation of the World Wide Web, revolutionized information sharing and consumption. Web browsers began supporting both text and images, leading to the rise of Net Art. Digital technologies increasingly permeated interactive art, pushing the boundaries of artistic expression. This era prompted a significant contemplation within the art community about whether computers could themselves embody the innovative qualities traditionally attributed to human artists.

Blaise Agüera y Arcas launched Artists and Machine Intelligence (AMI) at Google in Seattle, aiming to merge art with machine intelligence. This initiative supports engineers interested in exploring art and technology by providing grants and residencies for artists to engage with machine learning. Previously involved in the demoscene—a global subculture of computer art that showcases programming, visual arts, and music through demos—Agüera y Arcas believes that while some artists will adopt machine intelligence as a new medium or collaborator, others will stick to traditional media and production methods. He views machine-generated art as the forefront of the avant-garde, poised to revolutionize society, enhance our understanding of the world, and redefine our role within it.

I agree with Arcas. Machine intelligence is an innovation that will profoundly affect art like the invention of the printing press, photography, and computers. As with these earlier innovations, it will ultimately transform society in ways that are hard to imagine from today’s vantage point; in the nearer term, it will expand our understanding of both external reality and our perceptual and cognitive processes. Creativity is not limited to people. We’re witnessing a time of convergences, not just across disciplines, but between brains and computers. In short, we are fundamentally technological beings.