"First Screening" : The Evolution of Digital Literature on Apple Computers

 

By the early 1980s, the Apple II emerged as the pioneering home computer that attracted writers interested in exploring new forms of expression through digital media. This appeal was partly due to John Cage's influential 1966 directive, which encouraged writers to view computers not merely as tools for simplifying tasks, but as instruments that could expand their creative horizons. Cage suggested that the computer's capacity for graphical representation, its algorithmic processing, and its interactive potential could lead writers to experiment with innovative literary forms and structures.

The Apple II was particularly suited for such creative experimentation. Unlike other home computers available at the time, it offered a unique combination of accessibility, robust programming capabilities, and a growing suite of software applications. These features made it an ideal platform for writers who were eager to push the boundaries of traditional narrative and poetic forms. The computer's text-based command-line interface, while primitive by today's standards, was a gateway to exploring the manipulation of text and the creation of interactive fiction and poetry, where readers could engage with text in non-linear ways.

Furthermore, the Apple II's influence extended beyond its technical capabilities. The computer's widespread availability and the burgeoning community of users created a fertile ground for the exchange of ideas and collaborative projects. This ecosystem not only supported but also inspired writers to delve into the computational aspects of literary creation, blending code and text in ways that were previously unattainable.

Although the Apple II initially experienced slower sales compared to more affordable options like the Commodore PET and TRS-80 Model 1, its fortunes dramatically changed by 1981. This turnaround was fueled by several key developments from Apple. Firstly, the introduction of a floppy-drive accessory significantly enhanced the Apple II's functionality, making data storage and retrieval much more practical for users. This hardware improvement was complemented by a highly effective advertising campaign that positioned the Apple II as the "best-selling personal computer," a claim that captured consumer interest and helped establish its market presence.

Perhaps the most transformative development was the creation of VisiCalc, the first-ever spreadsheet application. VisiCalc was a game-changer for the Apple II, proving to be a killer app that justified the purchase of the computer for many business users and professionals. This software not only showcased the Apple II’s capabilities but also demonstrated the practical applications of personal computers in professional and business environments, thereby expanding the market from hobbyists and tech enthusiasts to include professionals and businesses.

By 1983, riding high on the success of the Apple II, Apple introduced the Lisa, a computer that marked a significant technological leap forward, particularly beneficial for writers and professional users. Unlike the first-generation Apple II, which was limited to uppercase letters and a forty-column display, the Lisa offered both uppercase and lowercase letters and an eighty-column display. This improvement was crucial for writers as it greatly enhanced readability and text formatting on the screen, making the Lisa a more practical tool for word processing and publishing tasks.

The Lisa also stood out for being one of the first personal computers to feature a graphical user interface (GUI), a revolutionary development that made computers more accessible and user-friendly to a broader audience. This interface, along with the enhanced text capabilities, positioned the Lisa as a highly desirable machine for professional writers and business users, further cementing Apple’s reputation as an innovator in personal computing technology. These developments not only solidified Apple's position in the marketplace but also contributed to shaping the future of personal computing.

Canadian experimental writer bpNichol was among the early adopters of the Apple II, purchasing it shortly after its release. His fascination with this new technology led him to create "First Screening," a pioneering digital literature piece composed of twelve kinetic poems written in the Apple BASIC programming language. This work represents one of the first instances of published digital literature, marking a significant moment in the evolution of literary forms.

Nichol's previous literary endeavors had involved extensive experimentation with visual and permutational concrete poems using typewriters. His work was characterized by a highly visual, do-it-yourself ethos that emphasized the procedural aspects of creation. These poems were not just about the text but also about the process and physicality of text production, reflecting a deep engagement with the materiality of the medium.

Influenced by media theorist Marshall McLuhan, Nichol viewed writing tools as extensions of the writer's thought and imagination. McLuhan’s ideas about how media affect cognitive processes and social environments resonated with Nichol, inspiring him to explore how different mediums could transform the act of writing and the presentation of poetry. The Apple II offered a new canvas and toolkit for Nichol’s explorations, allowing him to manipulate text and visuals in dynamic ways that were not possible with a typewriter.

The result, "First Screening," utilized the capabilities of the Apple II to animate text and create visual effects that mirrored the cinematic experience, hence the description of the poems as "kinetic" and "cinematic." These poems on the screen were designed to unfold over time, requiring active engagement from the viewer, who needed to run the BASIC program to experience the unfolding of the text animations and transformations.

This transition to digital forms allowed Nichol to exploit the screen as a medium—not merely for static display of text but as a dynamic field where text could move, change, and interact with the viewer in real-time. This innovative use of the computer as a medium for poetry expanded the boundaries of literary expression and demonstrated the potential of digital technology to create new forms of art and communication. Thus, "First Screening" stands as a significant early exploration into how computers could be harnessed for creative and literary purposes, embodying the fusion of technology and poetic vision.

The release of bpNichol's "First Screening" on the Apple II had a resonant impact on the community of experimental writers, inspiring others to explore the potential of digital platforms for literary creation. One notable example is Geof Huth, who, in 1987, created "Endemic Battle Collage" for the Apple II. Huth's work, which he described as "aural and kinetic poems," directly followed in the footsteps of Nichol's kinetic and permutational poetry, leveraging the dynamic capabilities of the Apple II to animate text and incorporate sound, thereby enriching the textual experience with auditory and visual dimensions.

This interest in the Apple II among experimental writers and artists was part of a broader fascination with how technology could be used to challenge and expand traditional literary forms. Writers and artists engaged in creating artists' books—works that are themselves explorations of the book as a conceptual and physical medium—were particularly drawn to the possibilities offered by the Apple II. They saw it as a tool that could bridge the gap between traditional bookcraft and emerging digital technologies.

Artists' books often play with the material aspects of the book form, such as structure, page layout, and the interplay of text and images, to make the medium itself part of the message. The Apple II introduced an opportunity to extend these explorations into the digital realm, allowing creators to experiment with how text, image, and sound could be manipulated and interacted with in a programmable space. This approach led to the creation of hybrid works that were neither entirely books nor purely digital creations but something in between.

The adoption of the Apple II by those interested in artists' books and experimental poetry highlights a pivotal moment in the evolution of literary and artistic practices. It signaled a shift towards a more integrative approach, where the physical and tactile qualities of traditional media were blended with the interactive and multimedia capabilities of digital technology. This convergence created a new form of art and literature that was deeply influenced by both the aesthetic and technical possibilities of its medium, showcasing the innovative potential of combining old and new artistic tools to push creative boundaries.