Technotext: Redefining the Print Book for the Digital Age

 

In traditional print books, the words manifest as tangible ink marks imprinted on paper, clearly demonstrating their status as inscriptions. The realm of computers extends this concept into the digital domain; here, inscription technology involves changing electrical polarities, which are then mapped to binary codes. These binary representations form the basis for higher-level programming languages like C++ and Java, eventually translating into visible forms on a screen, such as the glow from a cathode ray tube.

To qualify as an inscription technology, a device must produce material alterations that can be interpreted as readable marks. Telegraphy exemplifies this, transmitting structured electronic pulses through wires—these pulses represent material changes that are read as marks and are often converted into sounds or visual symbols on paper.

Further extending the concept, technologies like film and video capture visual information as a series of changes in light and color on physical or digital media, which are then interpreted as images. Medical imaging technologies such as X-rays, CAT scans, and MRI machines operate similarly by capturing and interpreting changes within the body, rendering them as images for diagnostic purposes.

Even at the scale of molecules, nanotechnology has ventured into the realm of inscription. A notable instance occurred when scientists arranged molecules to spell out the logo of their company, IBM, marking a literal and figurative imprint at the molecular level. This range of examples illustrates how various technologies apply the principles of inscription to record, interpret, and display information across different media.

In her book "Writing Machines," N. Katherine Hayles delves into the concept of inscription technologies—such as printing presses and computers—which are fundamental in producing literary texts. These technologies facilitate the transformation of abstract ideas into readable texts by physically marking paper or displaying pixels on screens. Yet, Hayles introduces a deeper layer of interaction with the term ‘technotext’, which describes a literary work that not only results from these technologies but also actively engages with and questions the very mechanisms of its creation.

A technotext goes beyond standard literary production; it is a work that reflects on the nature of its own materiality and the technological process that brings it into being. This type of text creates a dynamic interplay—a reflexive loop—between its imaginative content and the material technology that shapes it. By doing so, it prompts readers to consider not just the narrative or thematic content of the work but also the impact and implications of the technology used to create it.

For example, a technotext might explore how the physicality of a printed book—such as its layout, typeface, and paper quality—affects the reader’s experience and interpretation of the text. In digital realms, it might examine how the non-linear structure made possible by hyperlinks influences narrative form and reader engagement. Through these investigations, technotexts encourage a critical awareness of how various inscription technologies influence not only the creation and dissemination of texts but also the sensory and cognitive experiences of the reader.

The concept of a technotext, as explored by N. Katherine Hayles, can be enriched by comparing it to the closely related idea of ‘hypertext.’ Both terms delve into how texts interact with their technological formats, but there are nuanced distinctions and overlaps between them.

Hypertext, a term popularized by its application in digital contexts, primarily refers to text that is not linear but rather divided into nodes or chunks that are connected by hyperlinks. This structure allows for multiple paths through the text, which can be navigated in non-sequential orders dictated by the reader's choice. The three core characteristics of hypertext include:

1.  Multiple reading paths, which offer varied sequences in which text segments can be read.
2.  Chunked text, which breaks the text into manageable, often thematic, segments.
3. Linking mechanisms, such as hyperlinks, that connect these chunks and enable the dynamic navigation across them.

The World Wide Web is a prime example of hypertext on a massive scale, with its endless network of interconnected pages offering myriad ways to traverse information.

While hypertext is commonly associated with digital media due to the ease with which electronic texts can support non-linear navigation and complex linking, it can also be instantiated in print. For example, choose-your-own-adventure books or literary works with extensive footnotes and cross-references can be considered forms of print-based hypertext, as they encourage non-linear reading experiences through textual cues that guide the reader to flip between sections.

Technotext broadens the focus from the structure and navigational features of the text to include a deeper consideration of the text’s materiality and the technology that produces it. While hypertext emphasizes the architecture of reading paths and links within the text, technotext emphasizes how these features, along with the physical and digital attributes of the text (like its layout, typography, and medium), engage with and reflect upon the technology that shapes them. Thus, a technotext might not only include hypertextual features but also incorporate meta-discursive elements that draw attention to its own creation, medium, and interaction with the reader.

By comparing technotexts with hypertexts, we can appreciate that while all technotexts might incorporate or respond to hypertextual features, they also critically explore the broader implications of their material and technological contexts, thereby enriching our understanding of literature's interaction with technology.

A print encyclopedia exemplifies hypertext due to its multiple reading paths, a robust system of cross-references acting as links, and distinctively chunked text in its typographically separated entries. These hypertextual traits are creatively employed in Milorad Pavić's innovative print novel, "Dictionary of the Khazars: A Lexicon Novel." Additional instances of print-based hypertexts include Ursula LeGuin’s "Always Coming Home," which enriches its narrative of a fictional world with accompanying audio tapes; Paul Zimmerman’s artist’s book "High Tension," which offers various reading routes through its unique book design that allows pages to be folded diagonally, mixing text and images in different configurations; and Robert Coover’s short story "The Babysitter," which emulates hypertextual dynamics by presenting non-linear, contradictory events that suggest multiple, concurrent timelines and narrative developments.

As hypertext theory evolved in the late 1980s and early to mid-1990s, key theorists such as George Landow, Jay Bolter, and Michael Joyce placed significant emphasis on the role of the hyperlink, which became a defining feature of hypertext systems, overshadowing other aspects. This focus aligned with the characteristics of first-generation electronic hypertexts, like Michael Joyce's "Afternoon, a story," which used Storyspace software. This software facilitated the creation of textual networks where individual screens of text, or lexias, were interconnected through "hot words" that readers could activate by clicking, leading them to related text segments. This connectivity allowed for multiple reading paths, diverging from traditional linear text progression. However, it still maintained a semblance of the print tradition by navigating through text page-by-page or screen-by-screen.

Despite the apparent innovation, the initial claims of revolutionary change associated with these early hypertexts now seem exaggerated. At the time, these systems were only beginning to explore the vast potential of electronic environments.  While hypertext has not emerged as a dominant genre on its own, its elements have catalyzed the creation of new forms and genres across digital media. Complex multilinear narratives, reminiscent of those seen in hypertext, are now commonplace in long-form episodic television series. Key hypertext features pervade contemporary electronic literature, such as fragmentary narratives, user-directed navigation, and the integration of hypermedia elements, along with spatial navigation and the metaphorical use of interfaces. These include locative narratives, CAVE and VR works, and interactive installations. Although hypertext fiction has yet to replace printed books as the main form of nonlinear storytelling on computers and networks, it has laid the groundwork for a diverse range of new literary formats in the digital realm.

The early hypertexts laid foundational concepts but did not fully exploit the interactive and multi-dimensional capabilities that later developments in digital technology would enable, indicating a nascent stage in the evolution of digital textual media.